HANOI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
DEPARTMENT OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
Nguyễn Thị Nhàn
A STUDY ON THE VIETNAMESE-ENGLISH
TRANSLATION OF EXHIBIT LABELS IN THE
VIETNAM MUSEUM OF ETHNOGRAPHY
(Nghiên cứu cách dịch Việt-Anh các phụ đề hiện vật
tại bảo tàng dân tộc học Việt Nam)
M.A.THESIS
Field: Linguistics
Code: 5.04.09
Hanoi, 2005
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HANOI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
DEPARTMENT OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
Nguyễn Thị Nhàn
A STUDY ON THE VIETNAMESE-ENGLISH
TRANSLATION OF EXHIBIT LABELS IN THE
VIETNAM MUSEUM OF ETHNOGRAPHY
(Nghiên cứu cách dịch Việt-Anh các phụ đề hiện vật
tại bảo tàng dân tộc học Việt Nam)
By: Nguyễn Thị Nhàn
Supervisor: Dr. Trần Xuân Điệp
Hanoi, 2005
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PART I. INTRODUCTION
I. RATIONALE
In Vietnam as well as in every country of the world, museums have been open to help people
understand and appreciate the natural world, the history of civilizations, and the record of

sometimes a brief text on a particular object. This study limits itself to the analysis of the
Vietnamese-English translation of object labels in the Vietnam Museum of Ethnography in
Hanoi.
III. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study aims at:
• Analysing the strategies and procedures used in the translation of exhibit labels from
Vietnamese to English in the Vietnam Museum of Ethnography.
• Working out the difficulties of translation process that the translators in the museum
may have.
• Giving some suggestions for the problems.
IV. METHODS OF THE STUDY
To accomplish this thesis, we will go through a number of materials on translation studies to
build up a theoretical background for the research. Then, as it was stated in the aims and
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scope of the study, we will collect the authentic exhibit labels in the Vietnam Museum of
Ethnography in Nguyen Van Huyen street, Cau Giay district, Hanoi for description and
analysis. From these sources, we will analyse and draw out the methods and techniques used
in the translation. Furthermore, some translators who have translated the labels, will also be
interviewed for more specific information about the translation.
V. DESIGN OF THE STUDY
This study consists of three major parts: Introduction, Development, and Conclusion; a
bibliography, and some photographs for illustration.
Part I - Introduction
The rationale of the study is given in this part. It also gives the aims, scope and methods of
the study.
Part II - Development
Chapter I - Literature review
This chapter provides the theory of translation, translation equivalence, translation strategies
and procedures.
Chapter II - The translation of exhibit labels in the Vietnam Museum of Ethnography

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Larson, M.L. (1984:3)
“Translation is a communicative process which takes place within a social context.”
Hatim & Mason (1990:3)
“Translating consists of producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to
the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style.”
Nida, E.A. (1975:33)
These five definitions, in spite of slight differences in the expressions, share common
features that they all emphasize the importance of finding the closest equivalence in meaning
by the choice of appropriate target language’s lexical and grammatical structures,
communication situation, and cultural context. Through their definitions these scholars also
confirm the possibilities of effective interlingual communication by translation if a set of
basic requirements which are considered “Laws of Translation” could be achieved. Nida
(1964:164) proposes four major principles:
1. Making sense
2. Conveying the spirit and manner of the original
3. Having a natural and easy form of expression
4. Producing a similar response
Whereas Savory (1968:54) sets up twelve objectives for a translation:
1. A translation must give words of the original
2. A translation must give the idea of the original
3. A translation should read like an original work
4. A translation should read like a translation
5. A translation should reflect the style of the original
6. A translation should possess the style of the original
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7. A translation should read as a contemporary of the original
8. A translation should read as a contemporary of the translation
9. A translation may add to or omit from the original
10. A translation may never add to or omit from the original

+ Connotative equivalence: provides additional values besides denotative and is achieved by
the translator’s choice of synonymous words or expressions.
+ Text-normative equivalence: the source language and target language words are used in the
same or similar context in their respective languages
+ Pragmatic equivalence: with readership orientation, the source language and target
language words have the same effect on their respective readers.
+ Formal equivalence: produces and analogy of form in the translation by either exploiting
formal possibilities of target language, or creating new forms in target language.
I.3. Non-equivalence at word level
According to Baker (1992:20), non-equivalence at word level means that the TG has no
direct equivalent for a word which occurs in the ST. The type and level of difficulty posed
can vary tremendously depending on the nature of non-equivalence. Different kinds of non-
equivalence require different strategies, some very straightforward, others more involved and
difficult to handle
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I.3.1. Different kinds of non-equivalence
(a) Culture-specific concepts
The SL word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The
concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social
custom, or even a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘culture-specific’.
Speaker (of the House of Commons) has no equivalent in many languages. It is often
translated into Russian as ‘Chairman’, which does not reflect the role of the speaker of the
House of Commons as an independent person who maintains authority and order in
Parliament.
(b) The SL concept is not lexicalised in the TL
The SL word may express a concept which is known in the target culture but simply not
lexicalised, i.e. not allocated a TL word to express it. Landslide has no ready equivalence in
many languages, although it simply means ‘overwhelming majority’.
(c) The SL word is semantically complex
This is a fairly common problem in translation. A single word which consists of a single

(j) Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms
Even when a particular form does have a ready equivalent in the TL, there may be a
difference in the frequency with which it is used or the purpose for which it is used. English
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uses the continuous –ing form for binding clauses much more frequently than other
languages which have equivalents for it.
(k) The use of loan words in the source text
The use of loan words in the ST poses a special problem in translation. Quite apart from their
respective propositional meaning, loan words such as au fait, chic in English are often used
for their prestige value, because they can add an air of sophistication to the text or its subject
matter. This is often lost in translation because it is not always possible to find a loan word
with the same meaning in the TL.
I.3.2. Strategies used by professional translators
(a) Translation by a more general word (superordinate)
This is one of the commonest strategies for dealing with many types of non-equivalence,
particularly in the area of propositional meaning. It works equally well in most, if not all,
languages, since the hierarchical structure of semantic fields is not language-specific.
(b) Translation by a more neutral /less expressive word
Baker (1992:29) gives an example to illustrate this.
Source text: the shamanic practices we have investigated are rightly seen as an archaic
mysticism.
Target text (back-translated from Japanese): the shamanic behaviour which we have been
researching should rightly be considered as ancient mysticism.
The translator could have used a Japanese phrase which means ‘behind the times’ and which
would have been closer to both the propositional and expressive meanings of archaic. This,
however, would have been too direct, that is too openly disapproving by Japanese standards.
The expressive meaning of archaic is lost in the translation.
(c) Translation by cultural substitution
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This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with a target-language

that big pandas have a kinship relation with the bears.
(f) Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words
If the concepts expressed by the source item is not lexicalised at all in the TL, the paraphrase
strategy can still be used in some contexts. Instead of a related word, the paraphrase may be
based on modifying a superordinate or simply on unpacking the meaning of the source item,
particularly if the item in question is semantically complex.
E.g. Source text: ….the lower mixed broadleaf forests….are the areas most assessible to and
disturbed by Man.
Target text (back-translated from Chinese): …the mixed broadleaf forests of the lowland
area …are the places where human beings enter most easily and interfere most.
The main advantage of the paraphrase strategy is that it achieves a high level of precision in
specifying propositional meaning. One of its disadvantages is that a paraphrases does not
have the status of a lexical item and therefore cannot convey expressive, evoked, or any kind
of associated meaning. Another advantage of using this strategy is that it is cumbersome and
awkward to use because it involves filling a one-item slot with an explanation consisting of
several items.
(g) Translation by omission
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This strategy may sound rather drastic, but in fact it does no harm to omit translating a word
or expression in some contexts. If the meaning conveyed by a particular item or expression is
not vital enough to the development of the text to justify distracting the reader with lengthy
explanations, translators can and often do simply omit translating the word or expression in
question.
(h) Translation by omission
This is a useful option if the word which lacks an equivalent in the TL refers to a physical
entity which can be illustrated, particularly if there are restrictions on space and if the text
has to remain short, concise, and to the point.
I.4. Translation procedures
Translation procedures, as stated by Newmark (1988:81), are used for the translation of
sentences and smaller units of language. According to Newmark there exist the following

are: Internet, vitamin, live show, hormone, axit, virus, dollar, email… (English), toilette,
cravate, fromage, savon (French), etc.
Similarly, when translating from Vietnamese into a foreign language, we have to retain some
culturally distinctive words that cannot be replaced by foreign words. Eg. Ao dai, pho, xich
lo….
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I.4.2. Calque
A calque is a loan translation of a particular kind: a complete syntactic unit is borrowed, but
its individual elements are translated literally. The result may be a calque of expression,
which preserves the syntactic structure of the source language while introducing a new mode
of expression.
Eg. Global warming vs. sự nóng lên toàn cầu
Cold war vs. chiến tranh lạnh
Trade mark vs. nhãn hiệu thương mại (thương hiệu)
Superman vs. siêu nhân
Call girl vs. gái gọi .
The White House vs. Nhà trắng
The summit conference vs. hội nghị thượng đỉnh
suicide bombing vs. ném bom tự sát
I.4.3. Literal translation
Literal, word-for-word translation is defined as one where the resulting target language text
is grammatically correct and idiomatic, but where the translator has not needed to make any
changes other than those that are obviously required by the target language grammar itself
(such as concord, inflectional endings).
Eg. Kim Chi là cô gái đẹp, làm vợ thằng Tuân đúng là “hoa nhài cắm bãi cứt trâu”.
⇒ Kim Chi is a beautiful girl, and as Tuan’s wife it was certainly a case of “a sprig of
jasmine in a field of buffalo shit”.
(Source: Nguyen Huy Thiep, Tuong ve huu, Material for translation studies tutorials)
In principle, literal translation is a unique solution, reversible and complete in itself. It is
most commonly found in translations between closely related languages, and especially

without altering meaning and without generating a sense of awkwardness in the reader of the
target text.
As with transposition, we can distinguish free or optional modulations from fixed of
obligatory ones. An example of an obligatory modulation is the phrase “in the world” which
must be rendered in Vietnamese as “trên thế giới”. It is because it would sound unnatural to
say “trong thế giới”. A common example of an optional modulation takes place when a
negative expression in the source language becomes positive in the target language, although
this is also closely linked to language specific stylistic features.
Eg. It is not difficult to do this.
⇒ việc này dễ thôi mà.
The difference between fixed and free modulation is one of degree. In the case of fixed
modulation, a competent bilingual will not hesitate to have recourse to this procedure if it is
supported by frequency of usage, total acceptance of usage, or a status established by the
dictionary or a grammar book.
With free modulation, no fixation has taken place and the process must be undergone anew
in each case. However, this kind of modulation is not really optional in the strict sense;
correctly carried out, it must result in the ideal target language solution corresponding to the
source language situation. By way of comparison, one could say that a free modulation leads
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to a solution which makes the reader exclaim “yes, that’s just how it would be said.” Free
modulation thus nevertheless tends towards a unique solution; and this unique solution rests
on a habitual mode of thought, which is imposed and not optional. Between fixed and free
modulation, there is only a difference of degree; a free modulation may at any moment
become a fixed one as soon as it becomes frequent, or as soon as it is felt to be the unique
solution (this usually happens during the examination of bilingual texts or discussions at a
bilingual conference, or as a result of a famous translation which becomes established by
virtue of its literary value). The evolution of free modulation into a fixed one becomes
complete when it is recorded in dictionaries and grammar books, becoming something to be
taught. From that moment on, non-modulation constitutes a mistake of usage and is
condemned as such.

translated into English by an English author, ‘But’ is translated as ‘The Goddess of Mercy’,
a female fairy figure, which is popular in English folklores.
Besides the above-mentioned procedures, Baker (1992) also suggests some other strategies
to deal with the problems of non-equivalence at word level.
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I.4.8. Naturalisation
This is the translation procedure that succeeds transference and adapts the SL word to the
normal pronunciation, and then to the normal morphology (word-forms) of the TL, e.g.
cowboy – cao bồi;
I.4.9. Cultural equivalent
This procedure is an approximate translation where the translator translates a SL cultural
word by a TL cultural word, e.g. baccalaureat is translated as “A” level. The translation uses
of these approximate equivalents are limited because they are not accurate, but they can be
used in general texts, publicity and propaganda, as well as for brief explanation to readers
who are ignorant of the relevant SL culture. A great advantage of approximate cultural
equivalents is that they have a greater pragmatic impact than culturally neutral terms; they
are important in drama as they can create an immediate effect. However, the main purpose of
this procedure is to support or supplement another translation procedure in a couplet.
I.4.10. Functional equivalent
Functional equivalent, which is applied to cultural words, requires the use of cultural-free
words, sometimes with a new specific term. Its function is to neutralise or generalise the SL
word; and sometimes add a particular, e.g. baccalaureat – French secondary school leaving
exam. This procedure is the most accurate way of translating or deculturalising a cultural
word.
This procedure is also used when a SL technical word has no TL equivalent. In other words,
this procedure fills in the gap between the SL culture and TL culture. In translation of
cultural terms, this procedure is often combined with transference.
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I.4.11. Descriptive equivalent
To distinguish description from function, Newmark (1988) presented an example: Samurai is

learned about ethnography or anything related to it. When asked about the translation
process of the exhibit labels from Vietnamese into English, La Thi Thanh Thuy, one of the
translators, said that the most difficult aspect of the translation was some terms or name that
did not exist in English; then they had to choose words and phrases in English that could be
best suitable for that name. After that, the editor, an English native speaker, would give
comments on the translation and if he could understand what was meant by the translation.
Then the translation would be chosen.
Most of the exhibits in the museum are everyday life belongings of the people of ethnic
groups in Vietnam. Therefore, many items do not have equivalent terms in English. In the
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following section, we are going to examine the techniques and methods that have been used
by the translators in transferring the terms into English.
II. THE COMMON STRATEGIES USED IN THE TRANSLATION OF EXHIBIT
LABELS IN VME
The following section will deal with the strategies used in the translation of exhibit labels in
VME. Certainly and obviously, most of the label remains short and concise. This is
considered the case of illustration strategy in translation. Other strategies will be investigated
in the following parts
II.1. Translation using loan words
As said in the literature review, this strategy is particularly common in dealing with culture-
specific items. In the case of VME, a lot of concepts are about the life of ethnic groups in
Vietnam; the translators could not find equivalents for the concepts, so they had to use the
original words in their translation.
The followings are examples of using loan words in translation:
Example 1. Ông Địa = Ong Dia, water puppet
In this example, the concept ‘Ông Địa’ is truly culture-specific. It is a famous and unique
character in Vietnamese water puppetry and cannot be found in any other cultures. The
translators had no other ways than using this concept accompanied by an explanation ‘water
puppet’.
Example 2. Tượng thờ tổ nghề hát bội = ritual dolls for Hat boi singers