APPENDIX
A
Literary terms
Here
are a few of the
most widely used literary devices.
You
will probably
be
familiar with them
in
practice
but
perhaps cannot always
put a
name
to
them.
alliteration
the
repetition
of
sounds
at the
beginning
of
words
and
syllables
Around
the

light-fingered.
(=
she's
a
thief)
hyperbole
exaggeration
Jack
cut his
knee rather badly
and
lost gallons
of
blood.
What's
for
lunch?
I'm
starving.
I
loved Ophelia.
Forty
thousand brothers
Could
not,
with
all
their
quantity
of

city.
(-
St
Paul
boasting about Tarsus
and
hence about
himself)
metaphor
a
compressed comparison
219
I
came;
I
saw;
I
conquered!
APPENDIX
A
LITERARY
TERMS
Prfwaflew
downstairs,
(i.e.
her
speed resembled
the
speed
of a

downfall.
(=
alcohol)
The
kettle's boiling.
(=
the
water
in the
kettle)
The pen is
mightier than
the
sword.
(=
what
is
written)
onomatopoeia
echoing
the
sound
Bees
buzz; sausages sizzle
in the
pan; ice-cubes
tinkle
in the
glass.
Frequently,

apparently contradictory terms which
make
sense
at a
deeper level
The
cruel mercy
of the
executioner brought
him
peace
at
last.
paradox
a
deliberately contradictory statement
on the
surface
which challenges
you to
discover
the
underlying truth
If
a
thing
is
worth doing, it's worth doing badly.
(G.
K.

personification
is
called
the
pathetic
fallacy.
The
wind
sobbed
and
shrieked
in
impotent rage.
pun a
play
on
words
by
calling upon
two
meanings
at
once
Is
life
worth
living?
It
depends
on the

June. (Robert Burns)
I
wandered lonely
as a
cloud. (William
Wordsworth)
You
look
as
if
you've
seen
a
ghost.
synecdoche
referring
to the
whole when only
a
part
is
meant,
or
vice versa
England
has
lost
the
Davis Cup.
(=

zeugma
grammatical play
on two
applications
of a
word
She
swallowed
her
pride
and
three
dry
sherries.
She
went straight home
in a flood of
tears
and a
sedan chair. (Charles Dickens:
'The
Pickwick
Papers')
221
This page intentionally left blank
APPENDIX
B -
Parts
of
speech

the
past
participle
(spoken).
Adverbs
mainly describe verbs.
He
spoke
masterfully.
(=
how)
She
often
cries.
(=
when)
My
grandparents live here.
(=
where)
Nouns
are
names
(of
objects,
people,
places, emotions,
collections,
and so
on).

noisy class
red
wine
Conjunctions
are
joining words.
co-ordinating:
fish and
chips; naughty
but
nice;
now or
never
subordinating:
We
trusted
him
because
he was
honest.
She'll
accept
if you ask
her.
Everyone
knows
that
you are
doing
your

SPEECH
Interjections
are
short
exclamations.
Hi!
Ouch! Hurray! Ugh!
Oh!
Shh!
Hear, hear!
The
articles:
definite
(the}
indefinite
(a;
an -
singular;
some
-
plural)
224
APPENDIX
C -
Planning,
drafting
and
proofreading
Planning
Whenever

decide
on the
tone
and
style
which would
be
most appropriate.
Next,
jot
down,
as
they come
into
your head,
all
the
points that
you
want
to
include. Don't
try to
sort them into
any
order. Brainstorm. (It's better
to
have
too
much material

effective
introduction
and
conclusion.
Drafting
Now
you are
ready
to
write
the first
draft.
Concentrate
on
conveying clearly
all
that
you
want
to
say, guided
by the
structure
of
your
plan.
Choose your words with care.
Aim at the
right
level

-
?????.)
When
you
have
finished
this
first
draft,
read
it
critically,
concentrating initially
on
content.
(It
can
help
to
read aloud.) Have
you
included
everything?
Is
your meaning always clear? Should
some points
be
expanded? Should some
be
omitted?

be
changed? Does each
paragraph link easily with
the
next?
Are you
happy with
the
opening
and
closing paragraphs?
(Sometimes they work better when they
are
reversed.) Should
any
paragraphs
be
jettisoned?
Are
you
happy with
the
layout
and the
presentation?
If
you
have made
a lot of
alterations,

effort.
Much
may
depend
on the
outcome.
Proofreading
When
you are
happy with
the
content, style
and
tone,
you
are
ready
to
proofread. Proofreading means
scrutinising
the
text
for
spelling, punctuation, grammar,
usage
and
typographical errors.
226
APPENDIX
C -

skimp
this vital penultimate stage. Don't rely
wholly
on a
computer
spellcheck;
it
will take
you
only
so far
(and,
in
some cases, introduce errors
of
its
own).
If
you
know
you
have
a
particular weakness
(spelling, perhaps,
or not
marking
sentence
boundaries
-

you
make
any
small errors,
don't
simply cross them
out and
don't
use
correction
fluid.
Rewrite. When
the
last
"word
is
written,
you can be
satisfied
that
you
have done your
very
best. Good luck!
Note
If you
have
a
form
to fill in, it is