VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
οOο
ĐẶNG NGUYÊN GIANG
A STUDY ON STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC COMPONENTS
OF TYPICAL ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE IDIOMS
(Nghiên cứu thành tố cấu trúc và ngữ nghĩa của một số thành ngữ
cố định (đặc ngữ) điển hình trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt)
Major: English Linguistics
Code: 62 22 15 01 Supervisors: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Võ Đại Quang
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lê Hùng Tiến
HANOI – 2013
PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
Actually, studying idioms is not new; nevertheless, it has never been old. In
Vietnam, there exist three approaches in studying idioms: etymology, synchronic
evolution, comparison and contrastive analysis (Hành 2008). The studies under
original recovery and synchronic evolution are the backgrounds for comparison and
contrastive works. Several attempts have been made to work out the similarities
and differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of emotion expressing
idioms (Trào 2009), idiomatic verb phrases (Long 2010), idiom translation (Lan
2001; Phúc 2009), etc. An in-depth investigation of the structural and semantic
components of idioms will also offer excellent opportunities for cross-language
comparison and analysis.
Structurally, English and Vietnamese are very different. English is regarded
as a semi-inflectional language (Crystal 1997) while Vietnamese is completely
isolating. It is interesting, however, that several idioms in English have the same

Vietnamese idioms in terms of structural and semantic components;
- to provide main factors lying behind the similarities and differences
between English and Vietnamese idioms.
3. Research Questions
i) How are idioms in English and Vietnamese organized structurally and
semantically?
ii) What are the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese
idioms in terms of structural and semantic components?
iii) What main factors lie behind the similarities and differences between
English and Vietnamese idioms?
4. Scope of the Study
The present study focuses on everyday idioms selected from recently
published dictionaries (see Section 6.3).
5. Contributions of the Study
Scientifically, a common theory on idioms is applied to both English and
Vietnamese. This approach helps to find out the similarities and differences
between English and Vietnamese idioms in terms structural and semantic
components.
Practically, the work will provide assistance to English-speaking learners of
Vietnamese and Vietnamese learners of English to distinguish one kind of idioms
from others in each language. The work will also enable learners to tell when
idioms in English and Vietnamese are similar and different, which is likely to be
useful for their study. Language teachers will be aided to help their learners reach
this communicative goal (see Section 3 in Part C). For translation, knowledge of
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idioms from this work will help translators find closest equivalents to the
expression in the source language.
6. Methodology
6.1. Theoretical Framework
In tems of structural components of idioms, the models of Immediate

Publisher.
Cowie, A. P., Mackin, R., & McCaig, I. R. (1993). Oxford Dictionary of English
Idioms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3
Siefring, J. (2005). Oxford Dictionary of Idioms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vietnamese
Lân, N. (2003). Từ điển thành ngữ và tục ngữ Việt Nam. Hà Nội: Nxb Văn học.
Lực, N., & Đang, L. V. (2009). (3
rd
ed.). Thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Dictionary of
Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb Khoa học Xã hội.
Minh, T. H. (2007). Đi tìm điển tích thành ngữ [Seeking idioms’ classic references].
Hà Nội: Nxb Thông Tấn.
Ý, N. N., Hành, H. V, Khang, N. V., Thại, L. X., & Thành, P. X. (1998). Từ điển
giải thích thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Dictionary of Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội:
Nxb Giáo dục.
Ý, N. N. (2002). Từ điển thành ngữ tiếng Việt phổ thông [A dictionary of common
Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
The dictionaries above are chosen because of several specific reasons.
Firstly, they are quite popular and currently available. Secondly, they cover a large
number of the idioms which people are likely to find in everyday English as well as
Vietnamese. Thirdly, most of idiom types can be found in these dictionaries in a
large number. And finally, the dictionaries satisfy the diachronic perspective
because the examples for illustrations are mostly from literal works, magazines and
newspapers. The collected data forms a corpus under three categories: symmetrical
idioms (231 for English and 2,343 for Vietnamese), similized idioms (516 for
English and 699 for Vietnamese), and non-symmetrical idioms (3,387 for English
and 1,011 for Vietnamese).
6.4. Data Analysis
Due to the aims, the objectives, and the scope of the study, componential

Idioms, and chapter 3: Semantic Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms.
The last part is conclusion which includes the recapitulation of the study as
well as the conclusions and some suggestions for implications achieved from the
discussion in the dissertation and for further studies.
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PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Theoretical Background
1.1.1. Idioms Defined
In general, most of the linguists (Hornby 1995; Seidl and McMordie 1988;
Fernando 1996; Mệnh 1972; Châu 1981; Dân 1986; Hành 2008; etc) share the same
point of view that an idiom is a fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked
out by looking at the meanings of its individual constituents.
In the present study, given below is regarded as a summary of the defining
features of an idiom. Such an idiom
(i) is a fixed unit whose components cannot be varied or varied under
definable control;
ii) is regarded as a complex scene with a bipartite semantic structure: a literal
reading and an idiomatic meaning;
(iii) has the meaning which is usually different from the meanings of the
combination of its components;
(iv) expresses a pure concept.
1.1.2. Idioms from Traditional View
Traditionally, it is believed that idioms are unpredictable or non-
compositional (Chafe 1970; Chomsky 1965, 1980; Katz 1973; Fernando & Flavell
1981; Mệnh 1972; Châu 1981; Đức 1995; Hành 2008; etc). It means that the
meaning of an idiom cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituents.
According to traditional view, the meaning of an idiom is the special
chemical mixture of all components’ meaning, which is completely new in quality.
It means that there is no link between the literal reading and the idiomatic meaning.

structures, idioms with comparison structures, and idioms with non-symmetrical
structures. Hành (2008) classifies Vietnamese idioms into symmetrical figurative,
non-symmetrical figurative and similized. Each main category is subdivided into
smaller categories.
1.1.5. Idioms from Cultural View
Idioms which are regarded as a form of a language reflect culture in a
concentrated way (Zhang 2007). More particularly, Lijie (2010) points out that the
cultural differences between English and Chinese on idioms origins are dominated
by different living circumstance, different historical allusion, different religions and
beliefs, and different traditions and customs.
Fernando and Flavell (1981) outline the cultural preoccupations, the 'world
view' implicit in the idioms of English. More specifically and generally, Bình
(1999) supposes that geographical feature, habitat, mode of production, cultural
character, national thought, etc define the characteristics of idioms of each
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language. Sharing the same point of view with Bình (1999), Lan (2001) emphasizes
the role of the national thought in defining the images compared by giving a
comparative table among Vietnamese, English and Russian in terms of similized
idioms. Through this table, she comments that the images used to compare are very
popular things in everyday lives of the people in each nation. Additionally, Hành
(2008) does not only pay attention to structural system, he also particularly focuses
on the use and artistic value of idioms. From cultural perspective, he comments that
underlying cultural factors behind idioms need uncovering.
1.1.6. Idioms in the Relationship to Other Linguistic Units
Several linguists (Mệnh 1972; Lực & Đang 1978; Đức 1995; Hành 2008;
Trào 2009; etc) have made attempts to distinguish idioms from some of other
linguistic units such as collocations, proverbs, clichés and catchphrases, etc.
However, they in fact usually overlap to some extent. In the present inquiry, idioms
and some of other linguistic units are distinguished according to their structural
realization, relationship among components, meaning, nominative function,

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CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE IDIOMS
2.1. Canonical Structural Components
2.1.1. Symmetrical Idioms
2.1.1.1. Realization
In the present study, a symmetrical idiom is generally regarded as one which
has two opposite component parts (A and B). And these two parts are usually
parallel. It is also realized in the current thesis that 5.59% of our English data are
symmetrical idioms whereas symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese are 57.81%.
2.1.1.2. Structural Patterns
In our English data, symmetrical idioms can be noun phrases, adjective
phrases, adverbial phrases, verb phrases, or prepositional phrases. These phrases
have different functions indicated in the grammatical code. Symmetrical idioms in
our Vietnamese data can be noun phrases, verb phrases, or sentences.
2.1.1.3. Structural Components
In English, symmetrical idioms usually have three components, one of which
is a connector. Some may contain more than three components, but one of their
constituents must be a connector. The connectors are used to combine two
symmetrical parts of the idioms. This can be specified in A and B, A or B, A but B,
A to B, or A, B. A (usually corresponding with B) can be a noun/noun phrase, an
adjective/adjective phrase, an adverb/adverbial phrase, a verb/verb phrase, a
prepositional phrase, a pronoun, or a subordinator.
Generally, symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese are regarded as idioms having
two opposite parts (A, B). A and B are together combined by the rhythm of the
syllables. The number of syllables of the symmetrical idioms is usually even. There
is no connector between A and B of symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese; however,
these two opposite parts are always parallel. A (corresponding with B) can be a
noun phrase, a verb phrase, an adjective phrase, or a clause.
2.1.2. Similized Idioms

components of these idioms are classified under three general headings: phrase,
clause and sentence. The phrase heading is sub-divided into noun phrases,
adjective phrases, prepositional phrases, adverbial phrases, and verb phrases. The
clause heading consists of non-symmetrical idioms as clauses introduced by
subordinators such as if, unless, when, while, etc. The sentence heading consists of
non-symmetrical idioms as sentences, i.e. the patterns of idioms are sentences.
They can be simple, compound, or complex sentences. The simple sentences are
specified in AB (A is the subject which can be a noun or noun phrase for B being
the predicate (a verb phrase)). A coordinator B is applied to the compound
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sentences (both A and B are clauses). The complex sentences are possibly specified
in A subordinator B (both A and B are clauses), or A which is a superordinate
containing itself non-finite clause(s). In some cases, the idioms can start with
coordinators or subordinators; however, they are still regarded as compound or
complex sentences.
In Vietnamese, the structural components of non-symmetrical idioms are
classified under two general headings: phrase and sentence (Hành 2008: 78). The
phrase heading is sub-divided into noun phrases, adjective phrases, and verb
phrases. The sentence heading consists of non-symmetrical idioms as sentences,
i.e. the structural patterns of idioms are sentences. They can be simple, compound,
or complex sentences. The simple sentences are specified in AB (A is the subject
which can be a noun or noun phrase for B being the predicate (verb phrase)). AB is
applied to the compound sentences (A is a clause and B is also a clause). The
complex sentences are specified in AB (A is the subject which is usually a clause
and B is the predicate (verb phrase)).
2.2. Non-Canonical Structural Components
In the present study, we suppose that unfrozen idioms can be idiom variants
or synonymous idioms. Indeed, the fixedness of idioms cannot be denied because
idioms and their variants or synonyms are different ones. In order to study the
structural components of these idioms, an investigation is carried out among 200

idioms collected conform to two symmetrical component parts (A connector B in
English and AB in Vietnamese). A (corresponding with B) can be a noun/noun
phrase, adjective phrase, or a verb/verb phrase.
The structural patterns of similized idioms collected in both English and
Vietnamese can be adjective phrases, verb phrases, or prepositional phrases. The
collected similized idioms are constructed in (as) A as B/A like B in English and A
như B in Vietnamese. A can be an adjective, or a verb, and B can be a noun, a noun
phrase, or a clause. These idioms are also constructed in like/as B in English and
như B in Vietnamese. B can be a noun phrase, or a clause.
The structural patterns of non-symmetrical idioms collected in both
languages can be noun phrases, adjective phrases, verb phrases, or sentences. The
sentences are subdivided into simple sentences, compound sentences and complex
sentences. The simple sentences are specified in AB (A is the subject which can be a
noun or noun phrase for B being the predicate (verb phrase)).
2.3.1.2. Non-Canonical Structural Components Found in both Languages
The possible variabilities of idiom variants collected in both languages
conform to substitution, modification, partial deletion, and component reversal. The
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substitution happens to verbs, nouns, or adjectives. The modification only involves
adjectives. The partial deletion refers to predicate deletion and verb deletion.
Although the component reversal including complete reversal and partial reversal
appears in both languages, this kind of variation is more multiform and more
popular in Vietnamese.
The variabilities conform to substitution (happening to nouns belonging to
different semantic fields) and pattern transformation. The pattern transformation is
more multiform and more complicated in English.
2.3.2. Differences
Apart from the features in common, the analysis of the data has revealed
some significant differences between English and Vietnamese idioms. The typical
difference lies in the distribution of idiom types.

modify the idioms. The parts that can be deleted in some idioms are several types
of modification. The truncated reversal is also distinctive in English. Additionally,
the possible variabilities of synonymous idioms in English involve the substitution
of prepositions and passivization, which are not found in Vietnamese.
2.3.2.3. Canonical Structural Components Unique to Vietnamese
The structural patterns of symmetrical idioms in our Vietnamese data can be
sentences, which are not found in English data. The structural components of
symmetrical idioms collected in Vietnamese conform to two symmetrical parts
without any connectors, i.e. they are constructed in AB which usually consists of
four components. A (as well as B) can be a clause.
The structural patterns of similized idioms distinctively found in Vietnamese
can be sentences. For similized idioms constructed in A như B, A can be a noun or
a noun phrase for B being a verb phrase. Similized idioms are also constructed in
như B, and B can be a verb phrase. For AB similized idioms, A can be an adjective,
and B can be a noun or a verb.
2.3.2.4. Non-Canonical Structural Components Unique to Vietnamese
The possible variabilities of idiom variants found in Vietnamese but not in
English involve modification (model particle modification and noun modification)
and partial deletion (adjective deletion, preposition deletion and noun deletion).
The possible variabilities of synonymous idioms to be distinctive in Vietnamese
involve the substitution (happening to clauses, multi-parts of speech, or different
parts of speech), the literalized transformation, and the language transformation.
The literalized transformation means that some literal idioms can be transformed
from figurative ones. The language transformation refers to Sino-Vietnamese
idioms Vietnamized, i.e. the base idioms are Sino-Vietnamese, and their variants
are literally Vietnamese.
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CHAPTER 3: SEMANTIC COMPONENTS OF ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE IDIOMS
3.1. Canonical Semantic Components

A like B or like/as B in English, and A như B, như B or AB in Vietnamese. The
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typical feature of these idioms in both languages is that they have both topic of
comparison (A) and subject compared (B) whether in some cases A can be omitted.
Existentially, the relationship between A and B can be visibility or invisibility.
The composition of semantic components of similized idioms is also
motivated by the relationship between A and B. In fact, B can be the degree, the
manner, or the attribute of A.
3.1.3. Semantic Components of Non-symmetrical Idioms
3.1.3.1. Motivation Degree of Semantic Components
Semantic components of non-symmetrical idioms in both English and
Vietnamese also involve the analyzability of the constituents. Due to the
relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning, the motivation
degree of non-symmetrical idioms in English is divided into transparent (3.37%),
semi-opaque (91.14%) and opaque (5.49%) in English, and semi-opaque (95.25%)
and opaque (4.75%) in Vietnamese.
3.1.3.2. Composition of Semantic Components
The structural components of non-symmetrical idioms can be constructed in
various forms. Therefore, the composition of semantic components is very
complicated; in some cases, it is impossible to explain the relationship between the
component parts. Based on the the transparent-opaque axis (Fernando & Flavell
1981), the composition of semantic components of non-symmetrical idioms is
divided into correlativeness and non-correlativeness.
3.2. Non-Canonical Semantic Components
3.2.1. Semantic Components of Idiom Variants
3.2.1.1. Realization
Idioms are regarded as variants of each other when they have the same
contents and structural patterns but different constituents belonging to the same
semantic field (see Section 2.2.1.1). In both English and Vietnamese, there exist
base idioms, from which several idioms having the same contents are formed.

and their synonyms as notional synonymous units. It means that units expressing
the same notion or the same fact do not only have different figurative styles but
also different nuances.
3.3. Formation of Semantic Components of idioms
3.3.1. Formation Mechanism
In this section, we have examined several issues which focus attention on the
formation mechanism of semantic components of idioms as the external semantic
cognition. Metaphors, metonymies and conventional knowledge are regarded as the
concretization of external semantic cognition. More particularly, the idiomatic
meanings come from the cognition of the world and human activities through
mental images.
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3.3.2. Main Factors Affecting the Formation of Semantic Components
In this section, our discussion on main factors affecting the formation of
idiomatic meanings in English shares much with Lijie (2010). As presented above,
the semantic components of idioms are motivated by the external semantic
cognition governed by several different implicit factors: living circumstance,
historical allusion, religions and beliefs, traditions and customs, etc (Lijie 2010).
3.4. Semantic Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms Compared
3.4.1. Similarities
3.4.1.1. Canonical Semantic Components Found in both Languages
Symmetrical idioms in our data in both languages can be transparent, or
semi-opaque. The composition of semantic components of symmetrical idioms in
both English and Vietnamese can be motivated by the relationship between A and
B. Coordination is shared by both languages, i.e. A and B are independent.
Similized idioms can be semi-transparent, or semi-opaque. The typical
semantic feature of similized idioms in both languages is that they have both topic
of comparison (A) and subject compared (B) whether in some cases A can be
omitted. Additionally, in the semantic composition of similized idioms, B can be
the degree of A, the manner of A, or the attribute of A.

idioms (22.48% in English and 17.31% in Vietnamese). Transparent symmetrical
idioms are more prevalent in English than those in Vietnamese (11.69% in English
and 5.34% in Vietnamese). Both languages share a quite similar rate of semi-
opaque symmetrical idioms (88.31% in English and 89.46% in Vietnamese. The
opaque symmetrical idioms (5.20%) are only distinctive in Vietnamese. English
shows a bit higher rate of opaque non-symmetrical idioms (5.49%) while
Vietnamese displays a lower rate (4.75%). On the contrary, semi-opaque non-
symmetrical idioms (95.25%) in Vietnamese are more common than those
(91.14%) in English. Transparent non-symmetrical idioms in English are 3.37%
while there are no transparent non-symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese.
3.4.2.1. Canonical Semantic Components Unique to English
Non-symmetrical idioms in English can be transparent, i.e. the idiomatic
meanings of these idioms can be derived from the meanings of their individual
constituents. However, the transparent non-symmetrical idioms are not found in our
Vietnamese data.
The subordination between A and B of symmetrical idioms involves mutualit
y, i.e. the appearance of A brings about B. This type of relationship in the semantic
composition is unique to English.
3.4.2.2. Canonical Semantic Components Unique to Vietnamese
Symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese can be opaque, i.e. the component parts
of the idiom are completely implicit.
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The subordination between A and B of symmetrical idioms involves cause
and effect (i.e. A is regarded as the reason for B being the result), purpose (i.e. B is
the purpose of A), and manner (i.e. B is the manner of A, or vice versa).
The existential relationship between A and B of similized idioms refers to
semi-transparency, i.e. B is available and A is omitted but possibly deduced from B.
3.4.2.3. Differences between English and Vietnamese in Terms of Main Factors
that Affect the Shaping of Semantic Components of Idioms
The findings of the study show that the differences between English and

applied to both English and Vietnamese. This theory involves three types of idioms
existing in our data: symmetrical, similized, and non-symmetrical (Đức 1995; Hành
2008). The structural components of these idioms are coded in A, B, M, X, etc,
which are then realized, described and analyzed according to grammatical rules
suggested by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik (1985).
Our investigation reveals that there is a quite different rate of similized
idioms (12.48% in English and 17.25% in Vietnamese). English shows a
remarkably high rate of non-symmetrical idioms (81.93%) while Vietnamese
displays a much lower rate (24.94%). On the contrary, symmetrical idioms are far
more prevalent in Vietnamese (57.81%) than those in English (5.59%). Vietnamese
is a language which possesses tones and rhythms. Symmetrical idioms in
Vietnamese also possess a quality of rhythm, which results from the rules of
harmony in sound (Hành 2008) when constituent words are combined. This is the
reason why symmetrical idioms are so popular in Vietnamese.
The canonical structural components of idioms in English share some
similarities with those in Vietnamese. For non-symmetrical idioms, the structural
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components involve noun phrases, adjective phrases, verb phrases, and sentences.
The sentences are subdivided into simple sentences, compound sentences and
complex sentences. The simple sentences are specified in AB (A is the subject
which can be a noun or noun phrase for B being the predicate (verb phrase)).
Similized idioms are constructed in (as) A as B/A like B in English and A như B in
Vietnamese. A can be an adjective, or a verb, and B can be a noun, a noun phrase,
or a clause. These idioms are also constructed in like/as B in English and như B in
Vietnamese. B can be a noun phrase, or a clause. For symmetrical idioms, the
structural components conform to two symmetrical component parts (A connector
B in English and AB in Vietnamese). A (corresponding with B) can be a noun/noun
phrase, or a verb/verb phrase.
Although both languages have some similarities in terms of canonical
structural components of idioms, there exist several differences. For symmetrical

belonging to the same semantic field. It shows the opposite in Vietnamese.
2.2. In the present study, the canonical semantic components of idioms in
English and Vietnamese are investigated under their motivation degree and
composition. The motivation degree of semantic components is divided into
transparent (all the components are explicit), semi-transparent (some components
are explicit, and others are implicit), semi-opaque (all the components are implicit
but possibly interpretable), and opaque (all the components are implicit) (Fernando
& Flavell 1981). These motivation degrees are applied to three types of idioms
existing in our data: symmetrical, similized, and non-symmetrical (Đức 1995; Hành
2008). Our investigation reveals a quite different rate of semi-transparent similized
idioms (77.25% in English and 82.69% in Vietnamese) and semi-opaque similized
idioms (22.48% in English and 17.31% in Vietnamese). Transparent symmetrical
idioms are more prevalent in English than those in Vietnamese (11.68% in English
and 5.34% in Vietnamese). Both languages share a quite similar rate of semi-
opaque symmetrical idioms (88.31% in English and 89.46% in Vietnamese).
Opaque symmetrical idioms (5.20%) are only found in our Vietnamese data.
English shows a bit higher rate of opaque non-symmetrical idioms (5.49%) while
Vietnamese displays a lower rate (4.75%). On the contrary, semi-opaque non-
symmetrical idioms (95.25%) in Vietnamese are more common than those
(91.14%) in Vietnamese. Transparent non-symmetrical idioms in English are
3.37% while there are no transparent non-symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese. The
findings reveal that most of the idioms in English and Vietnamese are possibly
interpretable (Gibbs 1990, 1995; Nunberg et al. 1994; Kövecses & Szabo 1996;
Fernando 1996; Langlotz 2006). However, these idioms are more common in
English than those in Vietnamese.
Both English and Vietnamese share several similar properties in terms of the
composition of semantic components of idioms. This semantic composition is
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