MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

NONG VAN NGOAN

BILINGUALISM
IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
Specialty: Vietnamese Literature
Code: 9220121

SUMMARY OF THESIS
OF PhD IN LITERATURE

HANOI - 2019


The thesis is completed at Hanoi National University of Education

Scientific Advisors:
1. Prof./Dr. LA NHAM THIN
2. Dr. NGUYEN MINH HOAT

Review 1: Assoc.Prof.Dr NGUYEN PHAM HUNG
Review 2: Assoc.Prof.Dr NGUYEN THI CHIEN
Review 3: Assoc.Prof.Dr DUONG TUAN ANH

The thesis will be defensed at the University Level Thesis Assessment
Council of Hanoi National University of Education
At … 00’ date … moth … year 2019

The thesis can be searched at:

is a typical phenomenon of medieval literature, both universal and
international. In the context of regional literature, such as Korea / North
Korea and Japan, which were influenced by Chinese culture in the Middle
Age or in the history of Western literature from the fall of the Western
Roman Empire to the pre-Renaissance period, the phenomenon of
bilingualism in literature also existed. Thus, the thesis contributes an
insight into the literature of Vietnamese medieval literature in the regional
and international literature community.


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1.2. Practically
This topic has practical implications for the study and teaching of
Vietnamese literature in general as the characteristics and nature of
literature, type and language problems of Vietnamese medieval literature
as well as major authors in bilingual schools, universities and colleges.
2. Purposes and research tasks
2.1. Research purposes
The thesis "The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature" follows one of the current popular research
directions: interdisciplinary research. The thesis is done with the purpose
of studying the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese literature from
the tenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. On the other
Chinesed, through the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature, the thesis enriches certain insights about the
relationship between the phenomenon of bilingualism and writing forces,
type as well as language in Vietnamese medieval literature and
phenomenon of bilingualism in some regional countries.
2.2. Research duties

- Works, types of the phenomenon of bilingualism
- Language of the phenomenon of bilingualism
3.2. Research scope
3.2.1. Documentation scope
We mainly use the translated Chinese characters, transcribed Nom
texts of typical bilingual authors in Vietnamese literature such as Nguyen
Trai, Nguyen Binh Khiem, Nguyen Du, Cao Ba Quat and Nguyen Khuyen.
In addition, many works in both functional and literary types have been
explored and studied to further clarify nature of the phenomenon of
bilingualism.
3.2.2. Scientific scope
The scientific scope of the thesis topic includes: Theoretical
background of the bilingualism; Characteristics, nature; development of
bilingualism in Vietnamese literature. The phenomenon of bilingualism in
Vietnamese medieval literature in the context of regional literature; Typical
authors composing in bilingual language; Phenomenon of bilingualism with
literary types and languages
4. Research Methods:
The thesis uses the following main research methods:
4.1. Historical Literature Research Method:
The historical literature research method approaches the research
problem of the thesis as Vietnamese medieval literature history. The


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phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature was a socialhistorical phenomenon. It came from many causes, but mainly from
historical reasons: the domination of Chinese feudal dynasties, the inevitable
rule when "young literature" was influenced by the "old literature"; national
awareness in the field of culture and literature; the need for cultural

4.4. Prosody Research Method
In the study of Vietnamese medieval literature, there have been quite
a number of history literary works, there have been a number of works that
have gone into a number of types and authors approached in terms of
prosody including literary types, specific aspects, some types of prosody
with human notion, world conception and some artistic methods.
Bilingualism in literature manifests itself in many ways. The intensity of
bilingualism also varies in each type (for example, political commentary
literature is less influenced by the Vietnamese language Chinese the Tang
prosody poetry). It is necessary to study prosody in order to see the
specific characteristics of each type.
4.5. Typological Methodology
Type (English: typological originates from type or typé in French) is
the concept of a collection of phenomena which share some basic
characteristics. Type-based research does not simply enumerate, describe
the external similarities of literary phenomenon. Much more important is
to find out the rules of similarities. This method is used in the study of the
type of bilingual author and the type of categories viewed from the
phenomenon of bilingualism.
5. New contributions of the thesis
- Pointed out the historical, social, cultural, literary, linguistic and
aesthetic premises of the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature;
- Generalize characteristics and development of phenomenon of
bilingualism;
- Study the problem of bilingual author in Vietnamese medieval
literature;
- Generalize the development and expression of the phenomenon of
bilingualism from overview of type and language
6. Structure of the thesis

psychology, linguistic neuroscience and linguistic pedagogy. Bilingualism
in literature is a part of social – linguistic sociology - studying impact of
bilingualism on culture, society and the preservation of national identity.
The provision of definitions in general grade will give a broader
perspective before going into a narrower sense. We are referring here to
the concept of bilingualism in literature, more specifically, in Vietnamese
medieval literature


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1.1.2. Bilingualism in literature
In this section, we overview concepts of "the phenomenon of
bilingualism" in both broad and narrow meanings according to the
conceptions of researchers Dinh Thi Khang, Tran Nho Thin and Tran Dinh Su.
In conclusion, we think that the bilingualism in literatures, in essence
as the coexistence of two kinds of language, is understood as a literary
phenomenon that uses two types of characters and combines elements of
culture, literature, language arisen during linguistic contact between two
countries. In the Middle Age, the Chinese and Vietnamese contact made up
the bilingualism in literature with the two corresponding scripts of Chinese
and Nom characters. We do not identify "bilingualism" and
"multilingualism" as some of the above interpretations, because it is difficult
to distinguish "bilingualism" in medieval literature with Chinese, Vietnamese
and the "multilingualism" in modern literature (the second half of the
nineteenth century of the early twentieth century) with the interference of
three types of language: Chinese, Vietnamese and French.
Thus, it can be understood that the phenomenon of bilingualism in
literature is the phenomenon of a literature which is simultaneously
composed in two languages - indigenous language and foreign country,

Here, we analyze the relevant points in the work of researchers such
as Phan Ngoc, Tran Dinh Su, Tran Dinh Huou, Hoang Huu Yen, La Nham
Thin and some other researchers when studying problems of prosody,
linguistic and type which also mention the phenomenon of bilingualism in
Vietnamese medieval literature.
1.2.3. Studying authors writing in bilingual language
In this section, the author assesses research works on authors such as
Nguyen Trai, Nguyen Binh Khiem, Nguyen Du, Cao Ba Quat and Nguyen
Khuyen that mentioned the phenomenon of bilingualism. These works
mentioned more or less the thesis content. We acquire and inherit works of
Nguyen Loc, Dinh Gia Khanh, Tran Nho Thin, Hoang Huu Yen, La Nham
Thin, Bien Minh Dien, Tao Trang, Nguyen Thuy Hong, Tran Thi Anh and
some other researchers so that "The phenomenon of bilingualism in
Vietnamese medieval literature" is studied in a more complete and
systematic manner.
1.2.4. Study and comparison of Vietnamese medieval literature with
literature of countries in Chinese character cultural region in the Middle Age
Here, we review the research works that mentioned the phenomenon
of bilingualism by Doan Le Giang with the article Medieval period in the
literature of countries in the Chinese Chinese culture area or the
Historical Literature of Korea by Ko Mi Sook, Jung Min and Jung Byung


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Sun (translated by Jeon Hye Kyung and Ly Xuan Chung); Nguyen Nam
Tran with Overview of Japanese Literary History.
From these works, we see that the studies on the comparison between
Vietnamese medieval literature and the literature of countries affected by
the Chinese culture area show some similarities, that is the existence of the

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1.3. THEORETICAL BASE OF THE THESIS
1.3.1. Interdisciplinary theory of language and literature
In this section, we discuss the relationship between language and
literature, especially the relationship between language and phenomenon
of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature.
The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature
is a unique and interesting literary phenomenon, both universal, literary
and linguistic. This phenomenon takes place internally in literature but is
also formed on certain linguistic, historical, social, cultural, literary and
aesthetic premises. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the phenomenon
of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature from an interdisciplinary
perspective, especially herein the interdisciplinary language and literature.
1.3.2. Interdisciplinary theory of culture and literature
In this section, we analyze the relationship between culture and
literature; the study of literature including the study of the phenomenon of
bilingualism from a cultural perspective. The appearance of phenomenon
of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature is not only a literary
phenomenon but also a cultural phenomenon, a cultural imprint of a
remarkable era. Without the influence of Chinese culture and literature,
especially the three religion culture, folklore and literature at different
levels of language, type and authors of literature, it would not have been
possible the formation and development of such phenomenon of
bilingualism. The problem is that we need to find out what levels of
influence and expression of culture on the formation, movement and
development of the phenomenon of bilingualism. Literary research
approach and criticism from cultural or interdisciplinary perspective and
literature is a direction with many advantages
1.3.3. Theory of literary comparison

culture in the region and even in the literature of the whole human race are
still ahead. That, it excited use to choose this topic
The theoretical basis of the thesis, besides the theoretical and practical
achievements of the disciplines such as literature, language, comparative literature,
literary type, etc., interdisciplinary research methods such as interdisciplinary
culture and literature, interdisciplinary language … should be applied
Above is an overview of the research and issues related to the thesis
topic. The problems, scholars, and researchers who have been involved in
the bilingualism in Vietnamese literature are greatly referred. Along with
the use of methods, theories are the theoretical basis of the topic, overview
of the research situation is the foundation for the author to build ideas.


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Chapter 2
GENERAL ISSUES OF THE PHENOMENON OF BILINGUALISM
IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
2.1. HISTORICAL – SOCIAL, IDEALOGICAL – CULTURAL –
LITERARY BASES OF THE PHENOMENON OF BILINGUALISM
2.1.1. Social – historical premise
In this section, the author analyzes the historical and social conditions
and political preconditions that affect the formation, movement and
development of the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval
literature from the tenth century to the end of the nineteenth century.
2.1.2. Cultural, ideological premise
In this section, we analyze the intertwining of the national culture and
Confucian culture as well as the aesthetic viewpoints, medieval literary
conceptions that influences the formation, mobilization and development of
the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature.

with Chinese writing and real life, colloquial literature with Nom writing.
2.3. THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE PHENONMENON OF
BILINGUALISM IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
2.3.1. Literary period from the 10th century to the end of the
fourteenth century
In this section, we analyze our ancestors’ selection of Chinese
characters and the achievements of early Chinese character literature. In
addition, the author generalizes the formation and development of
literature written in Nom characters forming the phenomenon of
bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature from the thirteenth century.
2.3.2. Literary period from the 15th century to the end of the 17th
century
Here, the writer presents the achievements of the phenomenon of
bilingualism in the flourishing development of both Chinese literature and
Nom literature
2.3.3. Literary period from the 18th century to the end of the 19th
century
In this section, the author presents the achievements of the
phenomenon of bilingualism during the peak development period of the
phenomenon of bilingualism in both scope of literature and the author with
brilliant milestones in the endogenous ethnic literature type including
historical theater, melody, poem, and singing with speech


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2.4. PHENONMENON OF BILINGUALISM IN VIETNAMESE
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE IN REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
LITERATURE CONTEXT
In this section, we present the history and characteristics of the

century to the end of the nineteenth century showed a somewhat harsh
literary concept when considering Chinese character literature as true and
lofty. The poetry written in Nom characters was not considered important,
ordinary and even sometimes feuded by the imperial court. But above all,
Nom character literature was constantly developing beside the literature
written in Chinese characters and achieving brilliant results in the later
stages, marking the victory of national literature written in Nom characters.
The development of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature
may have been limited to the time when the use of Nom characters in
literary composition was recorded in 1282 when Nguyen Thuyen made an
alligator expelling oration and opened a movement of writing literature in
Nom characters at that time. Previously, our country's literature was only
composed in Chinese characters. Literature written in Nom began to leap
from the fifteenth century with Quoc am thi tap by Nguyen Trai and then
Hong Duc quoc am thi tap by Hong Duc period authors. By the sixteenth
century, Bach Van quoc ngu thi by Nguyen Binh Khiem appeared, but
Nom character literature was somewhat slow. Meanwhile, in this period,
Chinese character literature was still very developed. From the eighteenth
century to the end of the nineteenth century, it was the most flourishing
stage with the emergence of indigenous types such as poetry, rhyming and
singing while speaking. Nom character literature has prevailed against
Chinese character literature.
Bilingualism is a phenomenon that is unique, but also universal. Not
only Vietnamese medieval literature, this phenomenon appears in literature of
western countries in medieval period such as in England, France, Italy,
Germany…. Literature in countries in the region influenced by Chinese
culture such as North Korean / Korean and Japanese literature is also found in
borrowed languages (Chinese characters) in addition to the composition in the
local language. This shows that the bilingualism in Vietnamese literature is
similar in the context of regional literature and world literature.

- The type of bilingual author associated with secular Confucian
scholar and secluded Confucian scholar
- The type of bilingual author with artistic views, ideas of
Confucianist scholars


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3.4. DIVERSITY AND UNITY IN PERCEPTION OF BILINGUALISM
BY TYPES OF BILINGUAL AUTHOR IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL
LITERATURE
3.4.1. Diversity in perception of bilingualism by types of bilingual
author in medieval Vietnamese literature
In this section, the writer analyzes the diversity in the perception of
the bilingual status of the type of bilingual author in Vietnamese medieval
literature with four typical types of authors:
- Nguyen Trai with lyrical – political type of bilingual author
- Nguyen Binh Khiem with lyrical-philosophical type of bilingual author
- Nguyen Du with lyrical - narrative type of bilingual author
- Nguyen Khuyen with lyrical - satirical, inter-textual type of bilingual author
3.4.2. Unity in perception of bilingualism by types of bilingual
author in Vietnamese medieval literature
In this section, the author analyzes the cognitive unity for Chinese
literature and for Nom literature of the types of bilingual author in
medieval Vietnamese literature.
SUMMARY
Studying the history of literature can not ignore literary type system
and type. When research thinking is directed toward synthesis,
classification of literary phenomena is based on possible criteria that can
be generalized and acquired into a certain "aesthetic community." The

into the Vietnamese poetry system. This trend gradually reduced the
normative norms due to the acquisition of Chinese culture, making the
literary language flexible, soft, expressive and close to the real life. It can
be said that, for nearly ten centuries of medieval literature, never literary
language has been so nationalized and democratized as this period.
4.1.2. The phenomenon of bilingualism in literary types acquired
from Chinese character literature
In this section, the author analyzes the following issues:
- The phenomenon of writing in Chinese characters and Chinese Nom bilingualism with some functional literary types;
- The phenomenon of writing in Chinese characters and Chinese Nom bilingualism with some types of literature and art;
- The phenomenon of bilingualism in nationalized literary types with
Nom-Tang Prosody poetry and Nom-Tang Prosody poetry story
- The phenomenon of bilingualism in types of endogenous literature
such as: poetry story, singing with speech
4.2. THE PHENOMENON OF BILINGUALISM WITH LANGUAGE
IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
4.2.1. The development of the phenomenon of bilingualism in
Vietnamese medieval literature from the linguistic perspective
In this section, we generalize the development of the phenomenon of


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bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature from the linguistic aspect
into two rules: Firstly, the bilingual phenomenon in Vietnamese medieval
literature went from linguistic perspective mainly from Chinese writings,
followed by use of Nom characters in composition, finally is the
domination of Nom characters; Secondly, the phenomenon of bilingualism
in Vietnamese medieval literature in terms of language went from the
Chinese element with heavily elegant, bookish, scholarly language to the

which, poetry was the most clear and powerful expression of the Chinese
– Nom bilingualism with the formation and development of Tang prosody
Nom poetry, the most successful type of nationalization in Vietnamese
medieval literature history. The mobilization and development of
bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature in the final stage marked
the birth of endogenous types such as poetry, rhyming and singing. In
these types, Nom characters were completely dominant, and works
written in Chinese characters were at least in the narrative prose category
as poetry. At the same time in the works written in Nom, Chinese Viet
words also appeared with a little frequency.
In terms of language, the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature has parallel existence of Chinese and ethnic languages
(Nom characters). Chinese language elements include Chinese words,
classical historical references, and Chinese poems. Meanwhile, the
national language includes slogans, proverbs, idioms and folk songs. The
Chinese and Nom elements of language not only exist independently of
each other but also influence each other. Of course, the Chinese to Nom
influence is still stronger Chinese the opposite one from Nom to Chinese.
CONCLUSION
1. The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval
literature is a phenomenon that is both unique and universal. It was one of
the typical features of Vietnamese medieval literature from the tenth
century to the end of the nineteenth century. This phenomenon is also
universal because the literature of countries in the region influenced by
Chinese characters culture such as Korea / North Korea and Japan has
phenomenon of composing both borrowing language (Chinese) and local
language (Y Du, Hangul in Korea / North Korea, Kana in Japanese
literature). Meanwhile, in some Western countries such as England, France,
Italy, Germany,... the phenomenon of borrowing Latin for composing in
addition to the native language also exists

considered colloquial, mediocre.
The bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature could be
divided into three stages of development. The first stage, from the 10th
to the 14th centuries, with compositions mainly in Chinese characters;
The second phase, from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries, with
the simultaneous existence of two parts composed in Chinese characters
and Nom characters and the last stage, from the XVIII century - the end


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of the nineteenth century with the dominance of Vietnamese language,
Nom characters.
3. In interplay relationships, the phenomenon of bilingualism is
most apparent in the type of authors. In Vietnamese medieval literature,
there was a type of authors who composed both in Chinese and in Nom
characters. Typical of these were names like Nguyen Trai, Nguyen Binh
Khiem, Nguyen Du and Nguyen Khuyen. Bilingual authors have the
following characteristics: Type of bilingual author with Confucian and
competition-examination background; Type of bilingual author
associated with the historical and social context of the transitional
period; Type of bilingual author associated with secular Confucian
scholar and secluded Confucian scholar; Type of bilingual author with
artistic views, ideas of Confucianist scholars. Research on the types of
bilingual authors also shows the diversity and consistency in perception
of bilingual status in Vietnamese medieval literature. Diversity brings
many types of authors in bilingual author types such as: Nguyen Trai
with lyrical – political type of bilingual author, Nguyen Binh Khiem
with lyrical-philosophical type of bilingual author, Nguyen Du with
lyrical - narrative type of bilingual author, Nguyen Khuyen with lyrical